too- either

We use too and either at the end of a sentence.

We use too after a positive verb:	We use either after a negative verb:
• A: I'm happy.	• A: I'm not happy.
B: I'm happy too.	B: I'm not happy either, (not 'I'm not... too')
• A: I enjoyed the film.	• A: I can't cook.
B: I enjoyed it too.	B: I can't either, (not 'I can't too')
• Mary is a doctor. Her husband is a doctor too.	• Bill doesn't watch TV. He doesn't read newspapers either.

Numbers:How to say- Fractions, Decimals, zero, Spoken calculations...

1 Fractions

We say fractions like this:

• 1/8 one eighth
  


• 3/7 three sevenths
  


• 2/5 two fifths
  


• 1/16  eleven sixteenths

We normally use a singular verb after fractions below 1.

• Three quarters of a ton is too much.

We use a plural noun with fractions and decimals over 1.

• one and a half hours (NOT one and a half hour)
  


• 1 -3 millimetres (NOT 1 3 millimetre)

2 Decimals

We say decimal fractions like this: 0-125  nought point one two five (NOT 0,125—nought comma one two five)

3-7  three point seven

3 nought, zero, nil etc

The figure 0 is usually called nought in British English, and zero in American English.
When we say numbers one figure at a time, 0 is often called oh (like the letter 0).

• My account number is four one three oh six.

In measurements of temperature, 0 is called zero.

• Zero degrees Centigrade is thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.

Zero scores in team games are called nil (American zero).
Zero in tennis and similar games is called love.

4 Telephone numbers

We say each figure separately.
When the same figure comes twice, we usually say double (British English only).

• 307 4922    three oh seven four nine double two.

5 Kings and Queens

We say the numbers like this:

• Henry VIII
  


• Henry the Eighth (NOT Henry Eight)


• Louis XIV
  


• Louis the Fourteenth

6 Floors

The ground floor of a British house is the first floor of an American house;
the British first floor is the American second floor, etc.

7 and

In British English, we use and between the hundreds and the tens in a number.

• 310    three hundred and ten (US three hundred ten)
  


• 5,642    five thousand, six hundred and forty-two

Note that in writing we use commas (,) to separate thousands.

8 a and one

We can say a hundred or one hundred, a thousand or one thousand. One is more formal.

• I want to live for a hundred years.(NOT . . . for hundred years.)


• Pay Mr J Baron one thousand pounds, (on a cheque)

We only use a at the beginning of a number. Compare:

• a hundred
  


• three thousand one hundred
  

We can use a with other measurement words.

• a pint


• a foot


• a mile

9   Plurals without -s

After a number or determiner, hundred, thousand, million and dozen have no final -s. Compare:

• five hundred pounds
  


• hundreds of pounds


• several thousand times
  


• It cost thousands

Other number expressions have no -s when they are used as adjectives

• a five-pound note
  


• a three-mile walk

10 Measurements

We use be in measurements.

• She's five feet eight (inches tall).
  


• I'm sixty-eight kilos.
  


• What shoe size are you?

In an informal style, we often use foot instead of feet when we talk about people's heights.

• My father's six foot two.

11 Money

• 1p    one penny or a penny
  


• 5p    five pence


• £3.75    three pounds seventy-five

When we use sums of money as adjectives, we use singular forms.

• a five pound note (NOT a five-pounds note)

12 Adjectives

When expressions of measurement, amount and quantity are used as adjectives, they are normally singular.

• a ten-mile walk (NOT a ten-miles walk)
  


• six two-hour lessons
  


• a three-month-old baby

We can use possessives in expressions of time.

• a week's holiday
  


• four days' journey

13 there are . ..

When we count the number of people in a group, we often use the structure there are + number + of+ pronoun.

• There are only seven of us here today.


• There were twelve of us in my family.
  (NOT We were twelve . . .)

14   Spoken calculations

Common ways of calculating are:

• 2 + 2=4
  two and two is/are four (informal)
  two plus two equals four (formal)


• 7-4=3
  four from seven is three (informal)
  seven minus four equals three (formal)


• 3x4 = 12
  three fours are twelve (informal)
  three multiplied by four equals twelve (formal)


• 9 / 3=3
  nine divided by three equals three

non-progressive verbs

1 Some verbs are never used in progressive forms.

• I like this music. (NOT I'm liking this music.)

Other verbs are not used in progressive forms when they have certain meanings.

• I see what you mean. (NOT I'm seeing what you mean.)


• I'm seeing the doctor at ten o 'clock.

Many of these 'non-progressive' verbs refer to mental activities (for example know, think, believe).
Some others refer to the senses (for example smell, taste).

2 The most important 'non-progressive' verbs are:

• like
  


• dislike
  


• love
  


• hate
  


• prefer
  


• want
  


• wish
  


• surprise
  


• impress
  


• please


• believe
  


• feel


• imagine
  


• know
  


• mean
  


• realize
  


• recognize
  


• remember
  


• suppose
  


• think


• understand


• hear
  


• see


• smell


• sound
  


• taste


• weigh ( = 'have weight')


• belong to
  


• contain
  


• depend on
  


• include
  


• matter
  


• need
  


• owe
  


• own
  


• possess


• appear
  


• seem
  


• be

We often use can with see, hear, feel, taste and smell to give a 'progressive' meaning.

Negative questions:Structure, Meaning, Polite requests

1 Structure

auxiliary verb + n't + subject...

• Doesn't she understand?


• Haven't you booked your holiday yet?

auxiliary verb + subject + not...

• Does she not understand?


• Have you not booked your holiday yet?

The forms with not are formal.

2 Meaning

When we ask a negative question, we often expect the answer yes.

• Didn't you go and see Helen yesterday? How is she?

Negative questions are common in exclamations and invitations.

• Isn't it a lovely day!


• Won't you come in for a minute?

We can use negative questions to show that we are surprised that something has not happened, or is not happening.

• Hasn't the postman come yet?


• Aren't you supposed to be working ?

3 Polite requests

We do not usually use negative questions to ask people to do things for us.

• Can you help me? (ordinary question: used for a request)


• You can't help me, can you? (negative statement + question tag: common in spoken requests)


• Can't you help me⁹ (negative question: has a critical meaning — like Why can't you help me?)

4 yes and no

We answer negative questions like this.

• Haven't you written to Mary?
  ' Yes ' ( = I have written to her.)
  No ' ( = I haven't written to her.)


• Didn't the postman come?'
  Yes.' ( = He came.)
  No ' ( = He didn't come.)

names and titles

We can use names and titles when we talk about people, and when we talk to them. There are differences.

1   Talking about people

When we talk about people, we can name them in four ways.

a   First name.

This is informal. We use first names mostly to talk about friends and children.

• Where's Peter? He said he'd be here at three.
  


• How's Maud getting on at school?

b   First name + surname.

This can be formal or informal.

• Isn't that Peter Connolly, the actor?
  


• We 're going on holiday with Mary and Daniel Sinclair

c   Title (Mr, Mrs etc) + surname.

This is more formal. We talk like this about people we do not know, or when we want to show respect or be polite.

• Can I speak to Mr Lewis, please?


• We've got a new teacher called Mrs Campbell


• Ask Miss Andrews to come in, please.


• Dear Ms Sanders, . . .

d   Surname only

We often use just the surname to talk about public figures — politicians, sportsmen and sportswomen, writers and so on.

• I don't think Eliot s a very good dramatist.
  


• The women's marathon was won by Waitz

We sometimes use surnames alone for employees (especially male employees), and for members of all-male groups (for example footballers, soldiers, schoolboys).

• Tell Patterson to come and see me at once.


• Let's put Billows in goal and move Carter up.

2   Talking to people

When we talk to people, we can name them in two ways.

a   First name

This is usually friendly and informal.

• Hello, Pamela How are you'?

b   Title + surname.

This is more formal or respectful.

• Good morning, Mr Williamson

Note that we do not usually use both the first name and the surname of people we are talking to.
It would be unusual to say 'Hello, Peter Matthews, for example.

Note also that we do not normally use Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms alone.
If you want to speak to a stranger, for example, just say Excuse me, not Excuse me, Mr or Excuse me, Mrs

3 Titles

Mr( = Mister) is not usually written in full, and the others cannot be.

Ms is used to refer to women who do not wish to have to say whether they are married or not.

Dr is used as a title for doctors (medical and other).

Professor (abbreviated Prof) is used only for certain high-ranking university teachers.

Note that the wives and husbands of doctors and professors do not share their partners' titles.
We do not say, for example, Mrs Dr Smith. Sir and madam are used mostly by shop assistants.

Some employees call their male employers sir, and some schoolchildren call their male teachers sir.
(Female teachers are often called miss.)
Dear Sir and Dear Madam are ways of beginning letters. In other situations sir and madam are unusual.

• Excuse me. Could you tell me the time? (NOT Excuse me, sir, . . .)

mind

Mind can mean 'dislike', 'be annoyed by', 'object to'. We use mind mostly in questions and negative sentences.

• I don't mind you coming in late if you don't wake me up.


• Do you mind the smell of tobacco?' 'Not at all.'
  

Do you mind . . . ? and Would you mind . . . ? are often used to ask for permission, or to ask people to do things.
We can use -ing forms or if-clauses.

Do you mind/Would you mind. .. -ing. .. ?

• Would you mind opening the window? (= Please open the window.)


• Would you mind my opening the window? (= Can / open the window?)


• Do you mind people smoking in the kitchen?
  

Do you mind/Would you mind if... ?

• Would you mind if I opened the window?


• Do you mind if people smoke in the kitchen?


• Do you mind if I smoke?' 'No, please do.

'Note that the answer 'No' is used to give permission after Do you mind ...?
(I don't mind means 'I have nothing against it; it's all right'.)

may and might: forms, probability, permission

may and might: forms

1 May is a 'modal auxiliary verb' . There is no -s in the third person singular.

• She may be here tomorrow. (NOT She mays . ..)
  

Questions and negatives are made without do.

• May I help you? (NOT Do I may . . .?)

After may, we use the infinitive without to.

• You may be right. (NOT You may to be right.)

2 May has no infinitive or participles. When necessary, we use other words.

• She wants to be allowed to open a bank account.
  (NOT . . . to may open . . .)

3 Might is a less definite' form of may— it does not have a past meaning.
We use both may and might to talk about the present and the future.

4 There is a contracted negative mightn't. (Mayn't is very unusual.)

may and might: probability

1 Chances

We use may and might to say that there is a chance of something: perhaps it is true, or perhaps it will happen.

• We may go climbing in the Alps next summer. (= Perhaps we'll go.)
  


• 'Where's Emma?' 'I don't know. She maybe shopping, I suppose.'
  


• Peter might phone. If he does, could you ask him to ring again later?


• "I might get a job soon.' 'Yes, and pigs might fly. '(= 'It's very unlikely.')

2 Questions

We do not use may in questions about probability.

• Do you think you'll go camping this summer?
  (NOT May you go camping this summer?)

3 might

Might is not the past of may. It is used to talk about a smaller chance than may. Compare:

I may go to London tomorrow. (Perhaps a 50 per cent chance.)

Joe might come with me. (Perhaps a 30 per cent chance.)

4 Conditional

Might (but not may) can have a conditional use.

• If you went to bed for an hour you might feel better.
  (= . . . perhaps you would feel better.)

5 may/might have ...

We use a special structure to talk about the chance that something happened in the past.

may/might have + past participle

• 'Polly's very late.' 'She may have missed her train.'
  


• 'What was that noise?' 'It might have been a cat.'

We can use the same structure (with might only) to say that something was possible, but did not happen.

• That was a bad place to go skiing. You might have broken your leg.

may and might: permission

1 Asking for permission

May and might can be used to ask for permission.
They are more formal than can and could. Might is very polite and formal, and is not common.

• May I put the TV on?
  


• I wonder if I might have a little more cheese?

2 Giving and refusing permission

May is used to give permission. May not is used to refuse permission, and to forbid.

• 'May I put the TV on?' 'Yes, of course you may
  


• 'Students may not use the staff car park.

These are rather formal. In informal language, we prefer can and can't.

3 Talking about permission

We do not usually use may and might to talk about permission which has already been given or refused.
Instead, we use can, could or be allowed to.

• These days, children can do what they like. (NOT . . . may do . . .)
  


• I could read what I liked when I was a child. (NOT I might . . .)